Othering in Literature and Life: A Persistent Lens of Power and Division
- Victoria Rousseau
- Dec 7, 2024
- 14 min read
Updated: Jul 2
Othering is not merely a literary device—it is a deeply rooted narrative structure that exposes the mechanisms of exclusion, control, and identity formation. In literature, the act of "othering" occurs when individuals, cultures, or entire societies are depicted as fundamentally alien, threatening, or inferior, reinforcing binaries like “us vs. them.” This tactic has been used across centuries to explore and critique themes of identity, power, and belonging.
Historically, works like Othello by William Shakespeare (1603) used racial and cultural othering to highlight social anxieties about race and foreignness in Elizabethan England. Similarly, Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) casts the creature as a literal and symbolic “other”—a being rejected by society, mirroring real-world fears of the unfamiliar. In both examples, othering isn’t just a storytelling tool—it’s a reflection of societal prejudices that informed colonialism, racial hierarchies, and national identity.
Outside the page, othering has long shaped historical events and institutional systems. During the transatlantic slave trade, Africans were systematically “othered” through pseudoscientific racial theories that framed them as subhuman—a dehumanizing narrative that justified centuries of slavery and racial discrimination. In the 20th century, the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II was driven by a national narrative of suspicion and fear, painting citizens as “enemies within.” Today, similar dynamics play out through xenophobic immigration policies, the marginalization of transgender individuals in legislation, and the vilification of refugees in global political discourse.
In this context, literature does more than reflect society—it interrogates it. When authors depict the process of othering, they illuminate how identities are constructed and contested through language, ideology, and institutional power. From Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe to Giovanni’s Room by James Baldwin, these stories give voice to those who have been historically silenced, and in doing so, they challenge the systems that enforce exclusion.
By exploring othering as both a narrative device and a lived reality, we gain insight into how cultures define themselves through contrast, often at the expense of those cast as different. In an age of rising nationalism, cultural polarization, and algorithm-driven echo chambers, recognizing the patterns of othering is more crucial than ever—for readers, for writers, and for societies striving toward equity.
“Othering” Through Cultural Stereotyping
Cultural stereotyping is one of the most pervasive forms of othering in literature and society. By reducing individuals or entire communities to simplistic, exaggerated traits, these portrayals strip people of their complexity and reinforce harmful power dynamics. In literature, such stereotypes often reflect and perpetuate colonial ideologies, racial hierarchies, and nationalistic agendas. These narratives don’t just misrepresent—they dehumanize. In contemporary media, the exact mechanisms persist, shaping public perception and policy through language that casts certain groups as foreign, threatening, or inferior. Exploring how cultural stereotyping functions as a tool of othering helps us understand its lasting impact on both imagination and institutions.
Examples:
Literary Example: Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1899) has long been a focal point in postcolonial criticism for its dehumanizing portrayal of African people. The novel positions Africa not as a real place with diverse cultures, but as a symbolic backdrop for European psychological and moral exploration. Africans are largely voiceless, unnamed, and described in primitive or animalistic terms, reinforcing colonial ideologies that framed colonized peoples as inferior, uncivilized, and in need of European domination. Chinua Achebe famously denounced the book as “an offensive and deplorable book” for its role in perpetuating the myth of the “dark continent,” a term rooted in 19th-century imperial propaganda.
Modern Parallel
Cultural stereotyping continues to shape public narratives, particularly around immigration and national identity. During the U.S. immigration debates of the 1990s and 2000s, terms like “illegal alien” became entrenched in media and political discourse, reducing individuals to their legal status and reinforcing an image of criminality and threat. This language contributed to the passage of punitive laws such as California’s Proposition 187 (1994), which sought to deny public services to undocumented immigrants. Today, media portrayals still often generalize immigrant communities—especially those from Latin America and the Middle East—through tropes of danger, dependency, or cultural incompatibility. These depictions fuel exclusionary policies and social division, echoing the literary legacy of othering seen in colonial narratives.
“Othering” in Science Fiction and Dystopian Worlds
Science fiction and dystopian literature often hold up a mirror to society, using imagined futures or alternate realities to expose present-day injustices. Within these genres, othering is a recurring device—used not only to build fictional hierarchies but to interrogate real-world systems of exclusion. Whether depicting technologically advanced societies that suppress nonconformity or totalitarian regimes that divide people by gender, race, or class, these narratives show how othering is used to institutionalize fear, maintain control, and erase individuality. By amplifying social anxieties to dystopian extremes, these stories reveal the dangers of dehumanization and the consequences of unchecked power.
Examples:
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood
Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale (1985) constructs a chilling dystopia in which women are systematically “othered” through theocratic law and rigid social hierarchies. In the Republic of Gilead, women are classified by their reproductive function—Handmaids, Wives, Marthas—and denied autonomy over their bodies, movements, and identities. Stripped of names and dressed in color-coded uniforms, they become symbols of state-controlled fertility rather than individuals with rights. Atwood’s novel draws from real-world historical events—including 17th-century Puritanism, Iran’s post-revolution gender policies, and the forced sterilization of marginalized women in the U.S.—to show how the othering of women is both a tool of control and a method of erasure.
Modern Parallel
Contemporary struggles over reproductive rights continue to reflect the logic of othering depicted in Atwood’s novel. In recent years, laws in countries such as Poland, El Salvador, and parts of the United States have imposed sweeping restrictions on abortion and reproductive healthcare. For example, the overturning of Roe v. Wade in 2022 allowed U.S. states to implement highly restrictive abortion laws, often without exceptions for rape or incest. These policies effectively reduce women to their reproductive capacities, reinforcing societal narratives that subordinate female agency to state or religious authority. Dress codes imposed on women in countries like Iran, as well as efforts to ban gender-affirming care, further demonstrate how control over the body is central to the act of othering—removing autonomy, visibility, and voice.
Racial “Othering” in Classic and Contemporary Fiction
Racial othering is one of the most persistent and deeply ingrained forms of marginalization in both literature and real life. It functions by casting individuals—often based on skin color, ethnicity, or cultural background—as inherently different, dangerous, or inferior. In literary works, this technique exposes the systems of oppression that shape characters’ lives and fates, often critiquing the broader societal norms that allow such systems to persist. From courtroom injustice in classic fiction to contemporary movements challenging state violence, racial othering remains a critical lens through which we can examine the structures of power, prejudice, and resistance.
Examples:
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
In To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee illustrates how deeply embedded racism “others” an entire community. Tom Robinson, a Black man wrongfully accused of assaulting a white woman, becomes a symbol of how the justice system can weaponize race to maintain white dominance. Despite clear evidence of his innocence, Tom is convicted solely because of the color of his skin—reflecting how Black individuals were historically dehumanized and denied the presumption of innocence. Lee’s novel, set in the Jim Crow South, exposes the normalized racism that shaped both law and social order, reinforcing a racial hierarchy where Black voices and lives were rendered invisible or disposable.
Modern Parallel
Today, the racial “othering” depicted in Lee’s novel continues through institutional practices such as racial profiling, discriminatory sentencing, and police violence. The 2014 killing of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and the subsequent rise of the Black Lives Matter movement highlighted the systemic devaluation of Black lives in the criminal justice system. Studies consistently show that Black Americans are more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested, and killed by law enforcement. These real-world injustices mirror the fictional world of Maycomb, revealing how racial “othering” remains a powerful force in shaping both public perception and legal outcomes.
“Othering” in Postcolonial Literature
Postcolonial literature confronts one of the most enduring forms of othering: the erasure and distortion of entire cultures under the guise of empire and “civilization.” For centuries, colonial powers imposed narratives that positioned colonized peoples as inferior, exotic, or dangerous—justifying domination through cultural, political, and economic control. Postcolonial writers challenge these narratives by centering their own histories, identities, and voices. Through their work, they expose how literature itself has been used as a tool of othering—and how it can also be a powerful force for reclaiming agency and reshaping global understanding.
Examples:
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe offers a powerful counter-narrative to the colonial literature that long dominated Western discourse. Rather than portraying African societies as monolithic or primitive, Achebe centers the story within Igbo culture, capturing its rich traditions, internal conflicts, and social structures before and during European colonization. By doing so, he dismantles the imperialist trope that framed colonized peoples as inferior or in need of “civilizing.” Achebe’s work reclaims narrative agency and exposes how colonial powers used literature, religion, and bureaucracy to “other” entire civilizations for political and economic control.
Modern Parallel
Contemporary echoes of postcolonial “othering” persist in global debates over cultural appropriation, reparations, and Indigenous rights. In media and pop culture, Indigenous and formerly colonized communities are still often depicted through reductive stereotypes—either romanticized as spiritual relics of the past or vilified as obstacles to progress. These portrayals erase the lived realities of modern Indigenous people and reinforce colonial-era assumptions. Despite growing efforts toward authentic representation—such as the rise of Indigenous-led media, literature, and advocacy—the struggle for narrative sovereignty remains a defining challenge of our time.
LGBTQ+ “Othering” in Literature and Media
Othering based on sexual orientation and gender identity has long been a mechanism for enforcing societal norms and silencing difference. In literature, LGBTQ+ characters have often been marginalized, erased, or defined solely by their “otherness”—reflecting the broader social forces that exclude queer voices from full participation in cultural life. Yet, powerful works like Giovanni’s Room confront this marginalization head-on, humanizing the internal and external struggles faced by queer individuals. These literary portrayals remain deeply relevant today, as LGBTQ+ communities continue to face political backlash, discriminatory laws, and social stigma that mirror the exclusions depicted on the page.
Examples:
Giovanni’s Room by James Baldwin
Giovanni’s Room by James Baldwin is a groundbreaking exploration of sexual identity, alienation, and the devastating impact of societal exclusion. Through the inner conflict of its protagonist, David—a man tormented by his attraction to another man in a world that demands conformity—Baldwin lays bare the psychological toll of internalized homophobia and the tragic cost of living a life denied authenticity. The novel challenges dominant heteronormative frameworks by portraying same-sex desire not as a deviation, but as a deeply human experience, rendered invisible by social norms and moral judgment.
Modern Parallel
Today, LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face systemic “othering” through targeted legislation and political rhetoric. Bans on gender-affirming care, attempts to censor LGBTQ+ representation in schools, and the resurgence of “Don’t Say Gay”-style bills reflect an ongoing effort to marginalize non-heteronormative identities. These measures not only restrict legal rights and healthcare access but also reinforce societal narratives that queer identities are abnormal or dangerous, echoing the very forces of exclusion Baldwin so poignantly exposed in his work.
In recent years, the United States has witnessed a sharp resurgence in anti-LGBTQ+ legislation and rhetoric, marking a pivotal moment in the nation’s civil rights trajectory. Over 500 anti-LGBTQ+ bills were introduced across state legislatures in 2023 alone—the highest number on record—with many targeting transgender youth by restricting access to gender-affirming healthcare, participation in sports, and even bathroom use. Simultaneously, school curricula are being censored to exclude discussions of gender identity and sexual orientation, reflecting a broader cultural push to silence queer narratives. These developments signal not only political backlash, but a deeper struggle over whose identities are deemed acceptable in public life—making the themes of exclusion, shame, and resistance in queer literature more urgent than ever.
Why “Othering” Matters in Literature and Society
Understanding othering in literature offers more than insight into character dynamics—it exposes the historical and institutional forces that shape collective worldviews. Writers have long used fiction to critique real systems of exclusion: from segregation-era legal structures to colonial domination and heteronormative social orders. These portrayals illuminate how oppression is constructed, sustained, and justified through language, law, and cultural norms.
In society, the consequences of othering are visible in everything from healthcare disparities to biased algorithms, where systemic inequities are embedded into everyday life. Recognizing these patterns in literature helps readers identify the mechanics of marginalization in their own communities—how certain voices are excluded from policymaking, how history is selectively told, and how language itself can codify discrimination.
By drawing attention to what is left out, misrepresented, or vilified, literature becomes a critical tool for reimagining inclusion. In doing so, it pushes us to move beyond symbolic representation and toward tangible change in how we define belonging, justice, and shared humanity.
Character Development and Conflict: How Othering Drives Narrative Tension
In literature, othering is often a catalyst for character development and central to dramatic conflict. By casting certain individuals or groups as fundamentally alien or misunderstood, authors expose the biases, fears, and structures that define society—and in doing so, shape characters' internal and external journeys. For instance, in Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, the unnamed narrator grapples with invisibility in a racially hostile world, highlighting how systemic othering erases individuality. Similarly, in The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton, class-based othering between the Greasers and the Socs underscores how societal divisions inform identity and drive intergroup tension. These themes also echo through works like Frankenstein and Jane Eyre, where othered characters are used to explore exclusion, moral ambiguity, and the limits of empathy.
Examples:
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley
From the moment of his creation, the Creature is rejected for his unnatural appearance. Labeled a monster by society and even his creator, he is denied empathy, education, and love. This profound isolation and othering fuel his turn toward violence, making him a tragic reflection of humanity’s capacity to dehumanize what it does not understand. Shelley uses the Creature to interrogate the boundaries between man and monster—and how those boundaries are socially constructed.
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë
Bertha Mason, the Creole wife locked in the attic, is othered through intersecting prejudices of race, colonialism, and mental illness. Depicted as savage and irrational, Bertha becomes a haunting symbol of Victorian anxieties about female autonomy and imperial guilt. Her treatment exposes how the “othered” woman was often used in 19th-century fiction to define the rational, virtuous identity of the English heroine.
These narratives reveal that the line between “self” and “other” is not fixed—it’s drawn by those in power, and it shapes the destinies of characters who exist outside the norm.
Social Critique and Cultural Commentary
Othering remains a powerful literary strategy for exposing the social and political forces that shape belonging, identity, and exclusion. Authors use it as a critical mirror to reflect how dominant cultures construct “Others” to justify systems of inequality, marginalization, and control. This device compels readers to question the norms that sustain cultural hierarchies—whether through colonial conquest, racial injustice, or gendered power dynamics.
In The Vanishing Half by Brit Bennett, the concept of othering plays out through twin sisters navigating racial identity in deeply segregated America—one passes as white while the other embraces her Blackness. Similarly, in Home Fire by Kamila Shamsie, Muslim characters are “othered” in the context of Western nationalism and surveillance, revealing how cultural belonging can be weaponized or revoked based on fear and prejudice. Through such modern narratives—alongside foundational texts like Beloved and Things Fall Apart—literature continues to challenge the structures that define who gets to belong and who is pushed to the margins.
Examples:
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
Achebe deconstructs the colonial lens by depicting the richness and complexity of Igbo life before European invasion. Rather than accepting the Western portrayal of African societies as primitive, he highlights how cultural othering was a calculated tool of imperial domination and control.
Beloved by Toni Morrison
Morrison exposes the lasting trauma of slavery by centering the emotional and psychological scars left by dehumanization. Enslaved people were systematically othered to uphold white supremacy, and Morrison reclaims their humanity by giving voice to the untold, often erased, stories of Black survival, memory, and resistance.
Alienation and Psychological Exploration
Othering is not always about external groups—it can also reflect deep internal divisions within the self. In literature, characters may “other” themselves or experience exclusion as a manifestation of psychological turmoil. This form of othering often symbolizes a fractured identity, suppressed emotions, or a disconnect between self-perception and societal expectations. These narratives probe the mind’s capacity for self-alienation, guilt, or existential dread, often blurring the line between reality and perception.
Examples:
The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath
Esther Greenwood’s descent into mental illness is marked by a growing sense of estrangement from the world around her. She perceives herself as fundamentally different, invisible, and incapable of fitting into prescribed roles for women, creating a portrait of internalized othering and identity fragmentation.
Never Let Me Go by Kazuo Ishiguro
The cloned students of Hailsham are raised with an eerie sense of displacement, knowing they are different but unable to fully grasp how. Their eventual understanding of their societal role forces them to confront their own humanity, desire, and emotional isolation—rendering them psychologically and existentially “othered” despite their profound inner lives.
The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka
Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect symbolizes extreme othering, as his family and society reject him after his physical change. This serves as a metaphor for alienation and existential despair.
Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk
Tyler Durden becomes an “othered” projection of the narrator’s repressed desires and dissatisfaction with modern consumer culture, illustrating how self-alienation can manifest as an external antagonist.
Whether symbolic or literal, psychological othering in literature allows readers to enter the minds of characters wrestling with disconnection—offering powerful meditations on identity, fear, and the search for meaning.
Science Fiction and Fantasy: The Alien Other
Science fiction and fantasy frequently rely on literal representations of “the Other” through aliens, mythical creatures, or unknown civilizations. These narratives explore how societies respond to the unfamiliar, examining issues of xenophobia, colonization, and cultural misunderstanding.
Examples:
The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin: The inhabitants of the planet Gethen are othered due to their unique, fluid gender identity. The novel questions rigid gender norms by exploring the human tendency to other what defies classification.
District 9 (novelization): Aliens stranded on Earth are segregated and subjected to discrimination, reflecting real-world histories of apartheid and racial segregation.
Postcolonial Literature: Deconstructing Western Narratives
Othering is not always about external groups—it can also reflect deep internal divisions within the self. In literature, characters may “other” themselves or experience exclusion as a manifestation of psychological turmoil. This form of othering often symbolizes fractured identity, suppressed emotion, or a disconnect between self-perception and societal expectation. These narratives probe the mind’s capacity for self-alienation, guilt, or existential dread, often blurring the line between reality and perception.
Examples:
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys: This prequel to Jane Eyre reclaims the story of Bertha Mason, presenting her as Antoinette Cosway, a fully realized character who is othered by colonial power structures and patriarchal oppression.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad: Although often criticized for perpetuating colonial tropes, the novel examines how European colonizers othered African cultures, using dehumanizing language to justify exploitation and conquest.
Young Adult Fiction and Social Justice Themes
In young adult (YA) literature, othering is commonly explored through themes of bullying, social exclusion, and identity struggles. YA authors use these narratives to connect with readers grappling with issues of belonging and acceptance.
Examples:
The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas: Starr Carter is othered by both her predominantly white school and her Black community, highlighting the pressures of navigating multiple cultural identities.
Wonder by R.J. Palacio: Auggie Pullman, born with a facial difference, experiences intense othering in school. The story centers on empathy and the importance of looking beyond appearance.
Magical Realism and Symbolic Othering
In magical realism, othering often takes symbolic forms, representing social or spiritual marginalization. Supernatural elements can highlight cultural disconnection or societal rejection.
Examples:
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: The town of Macondo and its residents are othered by time, isolation, and magical occurrences, reflecting themes of historical displacement and forgotten legacies.
The House of the Spirits by Isabel Allende: Characters with mystical powers are othered for their abilities, symbolizing how patriarchal and authoritarian regimes suppress nonconformity.
Why Authors Use Othering
“Othering” is a compelling literary tool because it reflects real-world social dynamics. Through its use, authors can:
Critique societal norms and power structures.
Explore themes of belonging, identity, and exclusion.
Reveal how fear of the unknown shapes prejudice.
Foster empathy by offering marginalized perspectives.
Far more than a plot device, othering is a narrative strategy that exposes deep truths about society, identity, and power. It compels readers to confront uncomfortable realities, question ingrained beliefs, and empathize with lives different from their own. Whether critiquing colonial legacies, examining social alienation, or exploring personal struggles, literature uses “othering” to challenge us to rethink our understanding of the world—and ourselves. Through the lens of the “Other,” we are reminded that the line between division and unity is often drawn by human perception, one story at a time.
Writing Prompts
Exploring Empathy in Writing
Literature often uses "othering" to foster empathy for marginalized characters. Think about a time you felt excluded or misunderstood. How can you draw from that experience to create a character who embodies "otherness" in your writing? Write a scene that explores their inner world and challenges readers to see through their perspective.
Challenging Stereotypes Through Storytelling
Many works critique societal norms by deconstructing stereotypes. Choose a common stereotype or societal prejudice you’ve observed. How can you subvert it in your writing to reveal its flaws or highlight the humanity of those affected? Outline a story concept or character arc that challenges these preconceived notions.
Using Conflict to Address Power Dynamics
Othering often shapes conflict by creating divisions between groups or individuals. Reflect on a power dynamic you’ve seen in the world—whether cultural, political, or personal. How could you use this dynamic to drive conflict in a story? Develop a plot idea that examines the tension between inclusion and exclusion, and consider how it impacts the characters involved.
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