The Philosophy of Othering: Key Thinkers and the Origins of Us vs. Them
- For The Writers | Official · Authenticated & Thoughtfully Reviewed
- Dec 7, 2024
- 11 min read
Updated: Jul 1
The concept of othering was first burned into my brain by one of the most unforgettable philosophy professors I’ve ever had the pleasure of learning from—Marco Deyasi. He didn’t present it as a distant academic term, but as a profoundly human mechanism: our tendency to divide the world into “us” and “them,” to define ourselves in opposition to the unfamiliar. It wasn’t about politics—it was about perception, identity, and the boundaries of empathy.
Othering, he explained, is a cognitive act as much as a social one. It starts with noticing difference, but escalates into naming, categorizing, distancing, and ultimately, denying.
At its core, othering is a philosophical problem: How do we define the self? Where does the self end, and the “other” begin? What happens when we collapse or reinforce that boundary? These questions reach back to the earliest metaphysical inquiries about subjectivity and consciousness. In Plato’s dialogues, the idea of the Other begins to emerge in the contrast between illusion and truth. In Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit, the self only comes to know itself through the gaze and resistance of the Other—meaning identity is always relational, never isolated.
But othering isn’t just theoretical. It shows up in art, in literature, in love and loss. It surfaces when a child first realizes the world continues even when they’re not looking. It’s embedded in how we read bodies, interpret silence, and judge beauty. It underlies why some stories feel “universal” while others are treated as niche. It shapes how we grieve—or don’t—when strangers suffer. Othering lives in everyday interactions: a glance, a word choice, an act of exclusion so subtle it might never be named.
Philosophers and theorists have traced these dynamics across centuries and disciplines—from Emmanuel Levinas, who argued that the face of the Other is an ethical demand, to Simone de Beauvoir, who examined how women have been defined as a deviation from the male norm. From Martin Buber’s I-Thou relationship, which honors the Other as subject, not object, to Jacques Derrida’s work on différance and the instability of meaning, the philosophical investigation of the Other is expansive, nuanced, and deeply human.
This article isn’t about politics. It’s about philosophy, perception, and how we build—or break—bridges between self and other. Let’s dive into the thinkers and traditions that shaped our understanding of what it means to draw the line between “me” and “not me” and what it might mean to erase that line altogether.
Read more articles on othering: The Power of “Othering” in Literature: A Deep Dive into Its Use in Writing and The Philosophy of Othering: Understanding Division and Identity.
1. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): Dialectic of the Other
Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) introduced one of the most influential—and debated—frameworks for understanding the nature of selfhood and the role of “the Other” in shaping human consciousness. His now-famous Master-Slave Dialectic (or Lord-Bondsman Dialectic) is widely recognized as a foundational moment in the philosophical genealogy of othering, offering a radical thesis: the self cannot fully exist without the presence and recognition of another.
In Hegel’s formulation, self-consciousness is not innate or self-contained; it is generated through confrontation. Two consciousnesses meet and immediately enter into a struggle for dominance, not because they hate each other, but because each seeks validation of its own existence. The “master” attempts to assert superiority by treating the “slave” as an object, someone to control rather than engage with as a true equal. However, this victory is paradoxical: if the slave is reduced to mere utility, the recognition the master receives is hollow. True recognition must come from another self-conscious being, not a subordinated tool.
In contrast, the “slave,” though initially defeated, paradoxically develops a more robust form of self-awareness. Through labor, through transformation of the material world, and through reflection on their condition, the slave’s consciousness deepens. The master, by contrast, remains dependent—both psychologically and existentially—on the presence of a subordinate for affirmation. Thus, what appears to be power is revealed as fragile, while what appears to be subjugation becomes a path to transformation.
Hegel’s dialectic underscores a core philosophical insight: identity is never isolated or purely internal—it is forged relationally, through recognition and resistance. This process inevitably generates hierarchy, conflict, and a constructed Other—a figure onto whom differences, threats, and projections are cast.
While deeply abstract, Hegel’s ideas have profoundly shaped subsequent traditions: from existentialism (Sartre’s ideas on conflictual intersubjectivity), to psychoanalysis (Lacan’s theory of the mirror stage), to postcolonial theory (Fanon’s critique of colonial recognition). The dialectic has become a conceptual touchstone for examining oppression, mutual dependence, and the psychological costs of domination.
That said, Hegel’s philosophy is not without controversy. His dense and elusive writing style, coupled with the historical misuse of his ideas (particularly by later nationalist or authoritarian thinkers), has made him a lightning rod for both admiration and critique. Still, his insights into the relational nature of identity remain vital to understanding how—and why—we create Others in order to understand ourselves.
Due to the nature of his theories, Hegel’s philosophy continues to provoke intense debate due to its complexity, ethical ambiguity, and historical misinterpretation. To explore these tensions further, continue with: Controversies of Hegel’s Philosophy: Power, History, and the Struggle for Recognition.
2. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980): Existentialism and the Discomfort of Being Seen
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (1943) offers one of the most psychologically acute and philosophically influential analyses of othering in the 20th century, particularly through his concept of “the gaze” (le regard). For Sartre, identity is not fixed or inherent—it is contingent, fluid, and often destabilized by the presence of others.
Sartre argues that we experience ourselves first and foremost as subjects—agents moving through the world with freedom and intention. However, the moment we realize that someone else is watching us, a fundamental shift occurs. We become objects in their field of vision, reduced to how we appear to them, rather than how we experience ourselves. This moment—being seen—interrupts our subjectivity. We become self-conscious, aware not only of what we are doing but how we are being perceived.
This transformation is at the core of Sartre’s theory of othering. Under the gaze, the self is split: we are both for ourselves (our inner freedom) and for others (an external image we cannot fully control). This duality creates tension, even shame, as we confront the fact that others can define or confine us through their judgments, categories, or expectations. In short, the Other becomes a mirror we cannot escape—a reflection we didn’t choose but must now navigate.
Sartre’s gaze theory reveals how othering doesn’t require overt hostility. It can arise in the quiet discomfort of social interaction, in the feeling of being judged, misread, or misunderstood. It underlines how power operates not only through institutions but through perception itself. The gaze becomes a site where freedom is threatened, where we are made into things by the mere presence of someone else.
This existential insight reverberated beyond philosophy. It deeply influenced psychology, feminist theory (particularly Simone de Beauvoir and later Judith Butler), race theory (Frantz Fanon’s “white gaze”), and media studies. Sartre’s existentialism did not just dissect the mechanics of self and Other—it exposed how fragile and contingent our identities become under the weight of being seen.
To explore how these ideas unfold in feminist thought, continue reading: Simone de Beauvoir: Redefining Gender, Identity, and Freedom.
4. Edward Said (1935–2003): Postcolonial Othering and the Invention of the “Orient”
Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) marked a seismic shift in the study of literature, culture, and power. Drawing on Michel Foucault’s theories of discourse and knowledge, Said revealed how Western colonial powers did not just conquer territories—they also constructed entire regions and peoples through language, imagery, and scholarship. In this process, the "Orient" was not discovered; it was invented.
Said argued that European powers—especially Britain and France—systematically portrayed the East (particularly the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia) as exotic, irrational, sensual, and stagnant, in contrast to the West’s presumed rationality, progress, and moral superiority. These depictions were not innocent cultural observations. They were deeply political tools that justified imperial expansion, economic exploitation, and cultural domination. This is the heart of postcolonial othering: the construction of the Other as fundamentally different, inferior, and in need of control or “civilization.”
What made Said’s argument revolutionary was his focus on the role of intellectuals, writers, and institutions in perpetuating this worldview. He challenged not only overtly racist propaganda but also seemingly objective disciplines like anthropology, history, and literary criticism. Novels, travelogues, academic studies, and museum exhibits were all part of what Said called a “discourse of Orientalism”—a vast archive that defined how the East could be seen, spoken about, and ruled.
The consequences of this manufactured Othering are still deeply felt today. From media portrayals of the Middle East to foreign policy decisions rooted in cultural assumptions, Said’s work remains a foundational text in postcolonial studies, cultural criticism, and literary theory. It has inspired generations of scholars, writers, and activists to question whose stories are being told and who gets to tell them.
To further explore how Said’s work has reshaped literary and cultural thought, continue reading: Orientalism: Its Lasting Impact on Literature, Writing, and Cultural Representation.
5. Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995): The Face of the Other and the Birth of Ethical Responsibility
Emmanuel Levinas radically reoriented the philosophical understanding of othering by moving it out of the realm of identity and politics and into the domain of ethics. In seminal works like Totality and Infinity (1961) and Otherwise than Being (1974), Levinas argued that the encounter with the Other is not merely a social or psychological phenomenon—it is the foundation of morality itself.
At the heart of Levinas’s ethics is the face of the Other—a concept that represents the irreducible presence of another human being. When we encounter someone face-to-face, we are confronted with their vulnerability, uniqueness, and capacity for suffering. This confrontation is not neutral; it demands a response. Levinas insists that the Other’s face says, in effect, “Thou shalt not kill”—a command that precedes all contracts, laws, and rational calculations.
Unlike thinkers who frame the Other as a threat to the self’s autonomy, Levinas places the Other at the center of ethical life. He critiques philosophical systems (especially those influenced by Hegel and Heidegger) that reduce the Other to a function of the self’s understanding. In contrast, he posits that the self becomes truly ethical only in relation to the Other, in a posture of responsibility and service.
This has profound implications for how we think about identity, justice, and community. Rather than fearing or objectifying difference, Levinas calls us to respond to it with humility and care. His philosophy has deeply influenced fields such as theology, feminist ethics, trauma studies, and post-Holocaust philosophy.
In a world often shaped by fear of the unfamiliar, Levinas offers an alternative: not to conquer or explain the Other, but to welcome them—and in doing so, become more human ourselves.
For more on this subject, continue reading: Emmanuel Levinas and the Ethics of Othering: Responsibility, Recognition, and Moral Obligation.
6. Jacques Lacan (1901–1981): Psychoanalysis, the Mirror Stage, and the Symbolic Other
Jacques Lacan’s contribution to the philosophy of othering lies in his reworking of Freudian psychoanalysis through the lens of language, identity, and symbolic order. In particular, his theory of the mirror stage provides a powerful metaphor for how the self is constructed in relation to an externalized Other, even from the earliest stages of development.
According to Lacan, the mirror stage occurs when an infant first recognizes their reflection as an image of themselves. This moment is both foundational and fractured: it produces a sense of wholeness and identity (the “I”), but that wholeness is illusory. The child identifies with an image that is external, separate, and idealized—a version of self that is always out of reach. In this recognition, the self becomes alienated from itself, establishing what Lacan calls the Imaginary Order, where identity is built on misrecognition and desire for coherence.
But Lacan’s concept of the Other goes further. In his broader psychoanalytic theory, the “big Other” represents the symbolic structures—language, law, culture—that shape our desires, self-conception, and even unconscious life. This symbolic Other governs our sense of what is “normal,” desirable, or acceptable, often in ways we cannot fully grasp. The internalization of these norms creates psychological tensions and exclusions, which are mirrored in how societies externalize difference—projecting fears, desires, and anxieties onto other groups.
In this sense, Lacanian othering is not simply a social or cultural dynamic—it is rooted in the structure of the psyche itself. The way we perceive ourselves and others is always mediated through layers of projection, fantasy, and linguistic constructs.
Lacan’s theories have influenced a wide range of disciplines, from film theory and literary criticism to feminist philosophy and postcolonial studies. His work provides a nuanced psychological framework for understanding how individual and collective identities are formed through difference, not despite it.
For more on this subject, continue reading: Jacques Lacan and the Psychology of Othering: Identity, Desire, and the Big Other.
7. Postmodern and Critical Theorists: Identity, Power, and the Politics of Representation
A wide range of postmodern and critical theorists have advanced the philosophical understanding of othering, examining how systems of power produce and maintain marginalized identities. Thinkers such as Frantz Fanon, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Judith Butler, and Homi K. Bhabha brought attention to how race, gender, sexuality, and colonial histories are not merely individual experiences—but structural conditions that shape who is seen, heard, and valued in society.
Frantz Fanon, in works like Black Skin, White Masks and The Wretched of the Earth, exposed the psychological violence of colonialism. He argued that colonial domination does not just exploit resources—it reshapes the consciousness of the colonized, casting them as inferior, subhuman “Others” through language, education, and imagery. Fanon’s work reveals how othering becomes internalized, creating fractured identities and profound alienation.
Gayatri Spivak deepened this critique through her concept of the subaltern—a term she uses to describe populations that exist outside the structures of political representation and voice. In her seminal essay Can the Subaltern Speak?, Spivak questions whether those systematically excluded from dominant discourse can truly be “heard” within systems that define them as silent or insignificant. For Spivak, othering is not just a social process; it is an epistemological one that governs whose knowledge is considered legitimate.
Judith Butler, through Gender Trouble and subsequent works, challenged the fixed categories of sex and gender. She argues that gender identity is not innate but performed, and that dominant norms create a binary system in which certain identities are legitimized while others are marginalized. In this view, othering is built into the very discursive frameworks that shape identity and embodiment.
Homi K. Bhabha, in texts like The Location of Culture, introduced concepts such as hybridity and ambivalence to show how colonial identities are neither fixed nor entirely oppositional. He argues that the colonizer and colonized are caught in a mutual construction of meaning, where othering does not simply erase the colonized subject but reshapes both parties in unstable and often contradictory ways. For Bhabha, cultural difference becomes a site of both conflict and possibility.
Together, these thinkers reveal that othering is not merely interpersonal or psychological—it is embedded in language, institutions, histories, and ideologies. By deconstructing dominant narratives, they open space for new ways of seeing, being, and speaking from the margins.
The philosophy of othering is a deeply interdisciplinary concept shaped over centuries by traditions in existentialism, feminism, psychoanalysis, post-colonialism, and critical theory. Although no single thinker coined the term, philosophers like G.W.F. Hegel, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Edward Said, and Emmanuel Levinas each laid foundational groundwork for understanding how identity is formed in opposition to the “Other.” From Hegel’s 1807 Phenomenology of Spirit, which introduced the master-slave dialectic, to Said’s 1978 Orientalism, which exposed how the West constructed the East as exotic and inferior to justify imperialism, these ideas have been used to analyze some of history’s most oppressive systems—from European colonialism and chattel slavery to apartheid and gender-based exclusion.
What makes the philosophy of othering even more relevant today is its application to modern digital, social, and geopolitical landscapes. In an era of rising nationalism, racialized violence, misinformation, and refugee crises, the mechanisms of othering continue to shape public discourse, policy, and identity formation. Social media algorithms, for instance, often reinforce echo chambers that deepen divisions. Meanwhile, marginalized communities still fight for recognition in fields such as healthcare, education, media, and literature—battles that mirror those analyzed decades ago by these philosophers.
Their work endures not as abstract theory, but as a critical tool for decoding the structural forces that define who belongs, who is visible, and who gets to speak—questions that remain at the heart of our most urgent cultural and political debates.
Hegel's theories are a bit much for public discussions these days, especially with how sensitive people are becoming. I appreciate that you still mention him despite the inherent controversy. We can't rewrite history just because it will offend some people.